BACKGROUND NOTES: ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES PUBLISHED BY THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS US DEPARTMENT OF STATE August 1993 Official Name: Organization of American States PROFILE Headquarters: Washington, D.C. Established: April 14, 1890, as the "International Union of American Republics." Became the Pan American Union in 1910, then the Organization of American States in 1948 with the adoption of the OAS Charter in Bogota, Colombia. Purposes: To strengthen peace and security in the hemisphere, promote representative democracy, ensure the peaceful settlement of disputes among members, provide for common action in the event of aggression, and to promote economic, social, and cultural development. Members: 35--Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, Uruguay, and Venezuela1. _________________ 1With the entry of Canada (1990), Belize (1991), and Guyana (1991), all sovereign states of the Western Hemisphere are OAS members. Cuba is a member, although its present government has been excluded from participation since 1962 for incompatibility with the principles of the OAS Charter. Permanent Observers: 30--Algeria, Angola, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, European Community, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, the Holy See, Hungary, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Morocco, Netherlands, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Switzerland, and Tunisia. Official Languages: English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Principal Organs: General Assembly; Meeting of Consultation of Foreign Ministers; Permanent Council; Inter-American Economic and Social Council; Inter-American Council for Education, Science, and Culture; Inter-American Juridical Committee; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights; and the General Secretariat. Specialized Organizations: Inter-American Commission of Women (CIM); Inter-American Children's Institute )IACI); Inter-American Indian Institute (IAII); Pan American Institute of Geography and History (PIAGH), Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA); and the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). Other Entities: Inter-American Court of Human Rights; Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD); Inter-American Defense Board; Inter-American Defense College; Inter-American Development Bank (IDB); and the Pan American Development Foundation (PADF). Budget (1993): Regular fund (operations): $64 million, financed by assessed contributions from all members. The U.S. share, originally 66%, will drop to 59% by 1994. Voluntary funds (technical cooperation and assistance): $23 million, financed by contributions from all member states (the U.S. provided $11 million), some permanent observers, international financial institutions, and development agencies. HISTORY The Organization of American States, the oldest international organization in the world, traces its origins to the Congress of Panama, convoked by Simon Bolivar in 1826 and attended by representatives from Central and South America. That Congress drafted a "Treaty of Perpetual Union, League and Confederation," signed by the delegates but ratified only by Gran Colombia (today's Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela). Hemispheric countries continued the discussion of an inter-American system, and the first concrete step was taken in 1889, when the First International Conference of American States convened in Washington, D.C. Delegates agreed to create, on April 14, 1890, the International Union of American Republics, "for the prompt collection and distribution of commercial information." The agreement also established the Commercial Bureau of the American Republics in Washington as the Union's secretariat, with the participation of 18 Western Hemisphere nations, including the United States. In 1910, the Commercial Bureau became the Pan American Union, and American philanthropist Andrew Carnegie donated $5 million to construct a permanent headquarters in Washington, D.C. Despite progress toward regional solidarity, it became clear that unilateral action could not ensure the territorial integrity of the American nations in the event of extra-continental aggression, such as occurred in World War II. To meet the challenges of global conflict in the post-war world, nations of the hemisphere adopted a system of collective security, the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty) signed in 1947 in Rio de Janeiro. This served as a model for the 1948 North Atlantic Treaty. The OAS Charter was adopted at the Ninth International Conference of American states in Bogota, Colombia, in 1948. It reaffirmed the fundamental rights and duties of states, proclaimed the goals of the new organization, and established its organs and agencies. That conference also approved the American Treaty on Pacific Settlement (Pact of Bogota) and the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man. The OAS Charter proclaims it to be a regional agency within the UN system. Concern over slow economic development led the United States and 19 other OAS members to establish the Inter-American Development Bank in 1959. This reflected concern that the World Bank (which included Latin American countries in its list of eligible borrowers) was preoccupied with infrastructure and not sufficiently attuned to the need for "social" lending as well as industrial and agricultural aid. In 1960, an OAS "Committee of 21" produced the Act of Bogota, which called for a hemisphere-wide commitment to economic and social development. That set the stage for OAS support for the Alliance for Progress. The 1948 OAS Charter has been amended twice: by the 1967 Protocol of Buenos Aires, which went into effect in February 1970 and by the 1985 Protocol of Cartagena, which took effect in November 1988. Further amendments, incorporated in the Protocol of Washington (December 1992) and the Protocol of Managua (June 1993), have not yet taken effect. The first protocol created the annual General Assembly and gave equal status to the Permanent Council, the Economic and Social Council, and the Council for Education, Science, and Culture. The second group of amendments strengthened the role of the Secretary General, provided procedures for facilitating peaceful settlement of disputes, removed obstacles to the entry of Belize and Guyana, and called for strengthening economic and social development by measures to increase trade, enhance international financial cooperation, diversify exports, and promote export opportunities. The third set of amendments (Washington Protocol), when ratified by two-thirds of the member states, will add a new article permitting the suspension of a member whose democratically constituted government was overthrown by force. It will also amend existing articles to include the eradication of extreme poverty as one of the organization's essential purposes. The fourth set of amendments, when ratified, will create an Inter-American Council for Integral Development to replace the Economic and Social Council and the Council for Education, Science, and Culture. The new council is intended to improve delivery of technical cooperation, thereby helping eliminate extreme poverty. The basic objectives of the OAS, as laid out in its charter, are to strengthen peace and security; to promote the effective exercise of representative democracy; to ensure the peaceful settlement of disputes among members; to provide for common action in the event of aggression; to seek solutions to political, juridical, and economic problems that may arise; to promote by cooperative action, economic, social, educational, scientific, and cultural development; and to limit conventional weapons so as to devote greater resources to economic and social development. Peace and democracy are thus core OAS concerns. To demonstrate their importance, OAS election observers traveled to Nicaragua in 1989-90, to Haiti in 1990-91, to El Salvador, Paraguay, and Suriname in 1991, to Peru in 1992-93, and to Paraguay in 1993. In Nicaragua, the OAS took primary responsibility for the voluntary repatriation and resettlement of the former Nicaraguan Resistance, in accordance with the terms of the verification commission established by Central American presidents. OAS contributions in the fields of international law, juridical cooperation, legal development, and facilitation of regional trade have been substantial and have provided the basis for effective observance of a host of regional treaties concluded since 1889. As it enters its second century, the OAS has deepened its efforts to promote and consolidate democracy. The Democracy Development Unit and highly successful election observation missions set the stage for broadened human rights work, a regional program to fight drug abuse and trafficking, and the first hemisphere-wide environmental action plan. The OAS is also playing a supportive role in trade expansion and hemispheric development. U.S. Policy Toward the OAS The U.S. is committed to the OAS as the pre-eminent hemispheric institution. This reflects the U.S. Government's determination to make optimal use of multilateral diplomacy to resolve regional problems and to engage our neighbors on topics of hemispheric concern. President-elect Clinton told the Washington diplomatic corps on January 18, 1993: My administration's foreign policy will be rooted in the democratic principles and institutions which unite our own country and to which so many now around the world aspire: Democracies do not wage war against one another; they make better partners in trade and diplomacy; and, despite their inherent problems, they offer the best guarantee for the protection of human rights. As President, I will work closely with the international community to resolve contentious disputes and to meet the challenges of the next century. The most elemental and historic U.S. interest in the Western Hemisphere--shared by virtually all hemisphere states--is to prevent military, political, or other intervention by states outside the hemisphere. A second fundamental interest shared by the U.S. and other nations is the maintenance of peace among the states of the hemisphere. The OAS provides a means to promote the consolidation of democracy with due regard for the charter principle of non-intervention. All OAS members share a common concern for democracy, economic development, and human rights. Major U.S. interests and objectives in the hemisphere coincide with the goals and work of the OAS: the promotion and strengthening of democracy and human rights, drug control, environmental protection, legal development, economic assistance and technical cooperation, trade, and economic integration and development. Deputy Secretary of State Clifton R. Wharton, delivering Secretary Christopher's May 3 address to the Council of the Americas, said: The Organization of American States, like no other international body, has taken on a formal collective responsibility to defend the right of all Americans to be governed by the representatives they freely elect. The OAS remains the premier forum in the Americas for dialogue and inter-American cooperation. Since 1990, the U.S. has paid its full assessed quota to the OAS. For FY 1994, the Administration seeks not only full funding of the U.S. quota assessment to the OAS but also funds to continue paying the balance of U.S. arrears. OAS AND U.S. OFFICIALS Secretary General: Joao Clemente Baena Soares (Brazil), elected to second 5-year term in 1990. Assistant Secretary General: Christopher R. Thomas (Trinidad and Tobago), elected to 5-year term in 1990. Address: Organization of American States, 17th St. and Constitution Ave., NW, Washington, DC 20006. Tel. (202) 458-3000. U.S. Permanent Representative to the OAS: Ambassador Harriet C. Babbitt sworn in April 12, 1993. Address: U.S. Permanent Mission to the OAS, ARA/USOAS, Rm. 6494, U.S. Department of State, Washington, DC 20520. Tel. (202) 647-9376. STRENGTHENING DEMOCRACY In his confirmation hearings, Secretary Christopher noted that: Nowhere has the march against dictators and toward democracy been more dramatic than in our own hemisphere. . . . We also need to make the Organization of American States a more effective forum for addressing our region's problems. In Haiti, we strongly support the international effort by the UN and the OAS to restore democracy. The 1991 General Assembly created an unprecedented automatic mechanism, known as Resolution 1080, to deter illegal action against democratically elected governments. The resolution authorizes the Secretary General to convene the Permanent Council and then hemispheric foreign ministers within 10 days after a coup or other interruption of a legitimate, elected government. This was followed by the December 1992 adoption of a charter amendment which, when it takes effect upon ratification by two-thirds of the OAS members, allows for suspension from participation in OAS policy bodies of any member country in which a democratically elected government is overthrown by force. OAS monitoring of the election process in Nicaragua contributed decisively to the outcome of the February 1990 elections and enhanced the prospects for a just and lasting peace in Central America. While the OAS, at the request of the host government concerned, has sent small teams of elections observers throughout the hemisphere, the magnitude and scope of the mission in Nicaragua--433 observers and an OAS presence 6 months before the elections and for weeks afterward--suggested the need to institutionalize OAS support for democracy. To develop lessons learned in these observations, the OAS set up a democracy unit in the OAS Secretariat. Although its resources are limited, the unit has made an enviable start toward building peace and democracy in some of the region's most difficult circumstances. For election observation, the OAS creates an infrastructure which provides communications, housing, transportation, data-handling capabilities, and a parallel voting tabulation system, with observers in all election districts. This network also serves observers sent by the UN and other groups. In El Salvador's March 1991 assembly elections, the UN declined to send observers because of its mediating role, and the OAS was the only inter- governmental organization present. OAS officers worked with the electoral commission and the competing political parties to prepare the elections, and 160 observers from OAS member states helped assure equitable treatment for all. The day after Peruvian President Fujimori's April 5, 1992, announcement of extra-constitutional measures, the OAS Permanent Council called for the immediate "reinstatement of democratic institutions and respect for human rights under the rule of law." In the second use of the anti-coup mechanism, the hemisphere's foreign ministers met April 13, 1992, called for the reestablishment of democratic institutional order in Peru, and asked the Secretary General to head a small mission of foreign ministers to travel to Peru to bring about a dialogue between the authorities and the other political forces in that country. In May 1992, President Fujimori traveled to Nassau, Bahamas, to attend the second session of the OAS foreign ministers meeting on Peru, where he told them he would call elections for a constituent congress to exercise legislative powers and to draft a new constitution. The OAS sent over 200 observers to monitor those elections, held November 22, as well as a small team for the municipal elections on January 29, 1993. The OAS closely monitored the elections and, although there were occasional irregularities as well as some violence aimed at disrupting the electoral process, they were considered generally free and fair. Following election of the constituent congress and in view of expected continued OAS assistance to modernize electoral procedures in Peru, OAS Foreign Ministers decided in December 1992 to close their meeting on Peru. In the third use of the anti-coup mechanism, a May 26, 1993, Permanent Council session convoked an ad hoc meeting of foreign ministers (MFM) on Guatemala in Washington on June 3, in response to then-President Serrano's suspension of constitutional democracy on May 25. The MFM strongly condemned Serrano's actions, called for the immediate re-establishment of constitutional democracy in Guatemala, and sent Secretary General Baena Soares to Guatemala. The MFM was to reconvene in Managua on June 7 to consider what further action to take. Instead, Baena Soares reported on the Guatemalan Congress's election of Ramiro de Leon Carpio as President, replacing Serrano. President de Leon flew to Managua June 8 to address the General Assembly to express appreciation for the forthright OAS action that had been a major factor in bringing about the prompt restoration of constitutional democracy in Guatemala. PEACE-KEEPING AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION Peaceful settlement of disputes is central to the OAS under its own mandate and is consistent with the UN Charter. In border conflict situations, beyond actual intervention, the very existence of the OAS and the possibility that it might take action tends to have a chilling effect on any unilateral resort to force. For example, -- In 1981, Peru and Ecuador announced a cessation of their border conflict at an OAS meeting convened for the purpose of considering that conflict; -- In 1988, a naval incident between Colombia and Venezuela was defused following a public appeal by the OAS Secretary General and special sessions of the Permanent Council; and -- In 1989, a citizen of Trinidad and Tobago died in a shooting incident between a Trinidadian fishing trawler and a Venezuelan National Guard patrol boat. At the request of the two governments, the OAS Secretary General appointed three experts, whose recom-mendations led to a solution accepted by both sides. In the 1960s and 1970s, OAS peace-keeping took several forms: -- In 1964, in response to proof of Cuban support for revolutionary groups in Venezuela, the OAS voted that members should break diplomatic relations with Cuba; -- In the Dominican Republic in May 1965, the OAS played the central peace-keeping role, creating an Inter-American peace force for the first time. After successful elections in June 1966, the force was withdrawn; -- The OAS provided the framework and impetus for resolution of a 1969 border conflict (called the "Soccer War") between Honduras and El Salvador, including border-inspection forces in 1969-70 and for the 4 years following a recurrence of tensions in 1976; and -- In 1978, the OAS responded to Costa Rican allegations of border violations by Nicaragua by creating a committee of civilian observers to monitor the border. In 1978, the OAS also sought to arrange the peaceful departure of dictator Anastasio Somoza from Nicaragua and his replacement by a democratic government, but the effort failed in the face of Somoza's determination to stay in power. The following year, however, as armed resistance against Somoza mounted, an OAS resolution called for replacement of the Somoza regime by a democratic government. Panama Although the OAS did not obtain Manuel Noriega's departure from power after the general annulled Panama's May 1989 elections, a meeting of foreign ministers did provide a forum in which member governments voiced their collective concerns. Three months later, the Permanent Council heard Acting U.S. Secretary of State Lawrence Eagleburger's detailed account of Noriega's anti-democratic activities and intimidation of the population. That statement, along with a sharply critical report by the Inter-American Commission on Human rights characterizing the Noriega regime as "devoid of constitutional legitimacy," contributed to the international isolation of the Noriega regime prior to its removal in December 1989. Nicaragua During the tense pre-election period in 1989, OAS monitoring in Nicaragua contributed decisively to the fairness of the February 25, 1990, elections. The presence of impartial OAS observers gave voters confidence and made it impossible for the results to be ignored. The success of the OAS observation program was due to a number of factors, including the trust extended it by the people of Nicaragua, the high standards of the technical infrastructure the OAS put in place with support from other members of the OAS family of organizations--the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA)--and the support of OAS member states in providing observers, technical experts, and advisers. The United States contributed $3.5 million and technical advice. Members of the U.S. Congress joined legislators from other hemisphere countries as observers. In response to requests from incoming President Violeta Chamorro and outgoing President Daniel Ortega, Secretary General Baena Soares kept OAS observers in Nicaragua after the election. Meanwhile, he and UN Secretary General Javier Perez de Cuellar negotiated terms of reference for their organizations to implement the joint verification and support commission (CIAV) called for by the Central American presidents to verify compliance with the Tela and subsequent agreements. Under CIAV auspices, the OAS stayed on to assist 23,000 former combatants (with about 70,000 dependents) and to protect their human rights. All sides often call upon OAS representatives to resolve local disputes. In 1992, more than 1,230 families received materials and technical support from OAS-CIAV to construct their own small houses, and about 40 communities received help in building one-room schools. In response to a Nicaraguan Government request, the June 1993 General Assembly extended OAS-CIAV activities for 2 more years and expanded its mandate to include displaced persons and former members of the Nicaraguan army. Haiti The OAS has been deeply engaged in seeking a peaceful solution to the crisis in Haiti since the September 30, 1991, coup that sent President Aristide into exile. In the first application of the anti-coup mechanism adopted in June 1991, OAS Foreign Ministers met on October 2 and 8, 1991, and called for the political and economic isolation of the de facto regime. The ministers asked Secretary General Baena Soares to lead what became several high-level missions to Haiti to bring both sides together in a dialogue to resolve the crisis. One such round of talks produced the February 23, 1992, Washington Protocol that recognized the legitimacy of President Aristide and called for the deployment of an OAS presence in Haiti. That protocol was never ratified by the Haitian Parliament but provided the basis for another round of talks in September 1992, which resulted in agreement for the deployment of a small OAS civilian presence in Haiti. This small mission demonstrated the importance of international observers to help guarantee human rights and improve the climate for negotiation. That presence was greatly expanded when former Argentine Foreign Minister Dante Caputo, serving as a special envoy of both the OAS and UN Secretaries General, attained agreement for a joint OAS/UN international civilian mission. Since January 1993, the OAS has deployed over 100 observers throughout Haiti, with permanent offices in each of Haiti's nine provinces. They, together with a small number of UN observers, monitor human rights conditions, and report any incidents. Their very presence has had the effect of easing tensions. The OAS and the UN are also cooperating to implement a joint plan to strengthen democracy in Haiti once a political solution is reach. HUMAN RIGHTS: THE INTER-AMERICAN COMMISSION Located in Washington, D.C., the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) is distinguished from other multilateral organizations' human rights entities by its political autonomy. Its seven commission members are elected in their own right, not as representatives of governments. IACHR autonomy is further enhanced by its prerogative to initiate human rights investigations without the approval of the Secretary General or the Permanent Council. Human rights in the inter-American system are based on the 1948 American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man and the 1969 American Convention on Human Rights. The United States signed the American Convention on Human Rights in 1977; ratification is under study. The IACHR and Inter-American Court of Human Rights--located in San Jose, Costa Rica--give the OAS an active and at times forceful role in promoting and protecting human rights. Through both private persuasion and published reports on human rights infringements, the IACHR has been instrumental in improving OAS members' human rights practices and has helped to resolve conflicts. The IACHR's annual report has chapters on human rights problems in general, individual cases, and country status reports. The IACHR also publishes special reports, which have been effective in challenging abuses in specific countries. For example, its 1983 special report on human rights abuses in Cuba is the most comprehensive of any private or international monitoring agency. The IACHR played a key role in the 1989 release of almost 2,000 political prisoners held by the Sandinista regime in Nicaragua. The IACHR's membership as of January 1993 is: Dr. Oscar Lujan Fappiano (Argentina); Dr. Patrick L. Robinson (Jamaica); Dr. Leo Valladares Lanza (Honduras); Alvaro Tirado Mejia (Colombia); Dr. Marco Tulio Bruni Celli (Venezuela); Dr. Oliver H. Jackman (Barbados); and Prof. W. Michael Reisman (USA). In January 1994, Dr. Bruni Celli and Dr. Jackman will be replaced by Dr. Claudio Grossman (Chile) and John Donaldson (Trinidad and Tobago). FIGHTING DRUG ABUSE AND TRAFFICKING The OAS narcotics program was launched at the first Western Hemisphere meeting to deal with all aspects of the drug problem--the Inter-American Specialized Conference on Traffic in Narcotic Drugs, held in April 1986. In accordance with the program of action adopted at that meeting, the OAS General Assembly in November 1986 created the Inter-American Drug Abuse Control Commission (CICAD), which meets twice a year to direct the program and assess the drug situation in the hemisphere. Originally composed of 11 member governments, the commission has been expanded to 24 because of growing interest in the program and concern for the drug problem. The first projects were implemented in 1988. The program has identified five priority lines of action: Legal development for domestic and international law, education for prevention, mobilization of the private sector, establishment of an inter-American drug information system, and training. Secretary Christopher's May 3 speech emphasized that the United States "will work in partnership with the governments of this region to fight narcotraffickers, whose corruption and violence threaten the survival of democratic institutions. We will work with the OAS to create a common legal framework for action." The OAS program has produced notable results: -- At the April 1990 Ministerial Meeting on Narcotics in Ixtapa, Mexico, top officials from throughout the hemisphere, including the U.S. Attorney General, took several actions in the area of legal development, including approval of model regulations on the control of precursor and essential chemicals. -- The 1992 OAS General Assembly approved model regulations on money laundering and asset forfeiture. The OAS is carrying out training programs to help governments adopt and implement these regulations as well as the 1990 regulations on precursor chemicals. -- Under a hemisphere Plan of Action for cooperation in drug abuse prevention education approved in June 1990, Central American governments are already implementing a regional program with OAS technical support, and the Andean countries are planning theirs. -- CICAD's efforts to mobilize private groups and community organizations were boosted by the first multi-lateral teleconference on public and private sector cooperation for drug abuse prevention in 1990, and a multi-sector conference on successful strategies for mass media campaigns in 1991. PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT For 25 years, the OAS has actively assisted member states to incorporate environmental considerations into development projects. International development institutions have recognized the organization's in-house expertise and leadership role, and a number of these institutions have undertaken cooperative initiatives with the OAS or contracted the OAS to serve as an executing agency for their environmental projects. During the 1960s, OAS technical services concentrated on the survey, evaluation, and development of natural resources. In the 1970s, the scope was expanded to include the principal components of regional development such as socio-economic analysis, preparation of regional strategies for development, project formulation, environmental management, and institutional development. In the 1980s, special emphasis was placed upon multinational projects involving the management and conservation of natural resources, preservation of tourism areas and national parks, development of river basins and border regions, and mitiga-tion of natural hazards. The 1991 General Assembly approved the first hemispheric program of action for environmental protection. It provides a non-binding framework that identifies objectives and recommends specific measures to member states for regional cooperation. ORGANIZATION The General Secretariat is the permanent and central organ of the OAS, executing programs and policies decided upon by the General Assembly and the three councils. Directed by the Secretary General, it occupies a key position within the inter-American system and serves the entire organization and all member states. The Secretary General and the Assistant Secretary General are elected by the General Assembly for 5-year terms. They can be re-elected only once and cannot be succeeded by a person of the same nationality. Senior secretariat officials appointed by the Secretary General include the executive secretaries of CIES, CIECC (see below), and the drug abuse control commission (CICAD), the legal adviser, the assistant secretary for management, and the executive director of the human rights commission. Secretariat personnel conduct the activities of the Democracy Development Unit and serve as the staff for the commissions, councils, and other bodies. The staff of the general secretariat is composed of personnel chosen mainly from the member states, with consideration given to geographic representation. Staff members, numbering about 700, selected on the basis of competence, experience, and integrity, are considered international civil servants. The OAS Secretariat also maintains a small office in each member state. The General Assembly is the supreme organ of the OAS. It holds a regular session each year, either in one of the member states or at headquarters in Washington, D.C. In special circumstances, and with the approval of two-thirds of the member states, the Permanent Council can convoke a special session of the General Assembly. Delegations are usually headed by foreign ministers. In addition to deliberating on current issues, the General Assembly approves the program and budget; sets the bases for fixing member-state quota assessments; establishes measures for coordinating the activities of the organs, agencies, and entities of the OAS; and determines the general standards that govern the operation of the General Secretariat. General Assembly decisions usually take the form of resolutions, which must be approved by a majority vote of all members (two-thirds for agenda, budget, and certain other questions). A Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs can be called by any member state, either "to consider problems of an urgent nature and of common interest to the American States" (OAS Charter) or to serve as an organ of consultation in cases of armed attack or other threats to international peace and security (Rio Treaty). In either case, the request must be directed to the Permanent Council of the OAS, which decides by absolute majority vote if the meeting is to be called. In cases between member states, the affected parties are excluded from voting. Should an armed attack take place within the territory of an American state or within the Western Hemisphere security zone defined by the Rio Treaty, a meeting of consultation is held without delay. Until the ministers of foreign affairs can assemble, the Permanent Council is empowered to act as a provisional organ of consultation and make decisions. The most recent meeting of consultation was held June 3, 1993, in response to then-President Serrano's actions in Guatemala; it was closed on June 7, following the constitutional election of a new president. The Permanent Council, composed of ambassadors representing each member state, usually meets every 2 weeks throughout the year in Washington, D.C. The council, its four standing committees, and special working groups conduct the day-to-day business of the OAS, which involves implementing mandates from the General Assemblies, designing and assessing activities to promote democracy and strengthen human rights, considering requests from members, debating and approving resolutions on current issues, and dealing with reports from subsidiary organs. In an emergency, a special session of the council can be called immediately by its chairman or at the request of any member. The chair rotates every 3 months, in alphabetical order. Unlike the UN Security Council, no member can exercise a veto in the Permanent Council. Many OAS members place great importance upon obtaining consensus before decisions are made; thus council sessions are often delayed by behind-the-scenes negotiations over the precise content of decisions. The Permanent Council also serves provi-sionally as the organ of consultation (for meetings of foreign ministers) and every year acts as the preparatory committee for the General Assembly. The Inter-American Economic and Social Council (CIES)1 founded in 1945, is one of the permanent organs under provisions of the 1948 charter. It promotes cooperation among the nations of the Americas in pursuit of rapid economic and social development. (Once the Protocol of Managua Charter amendments are ratified, however, it will be merged into the Inter-American Council for Integral Development, which will have similar responsibilities.) The 1993 General Assembly, reflecting new economic and trade realities in the hemisphere, as well as the organization's increased membership, created a Special Committee on Trade, to facilitate consultations on trade policy issues. CIES oversees technical assistance provided to member countries by the OAS Secretariat. Its recent projects include improvement of development finance administration; trade development and facilitation; skills training; small business assistance; development of border regions and river basins; natural resource development and environmental management; and planning to mitigate damage caused by natural disasters. CIES manages the OAS trade information service known as SICE, which uses private sector, the U.S. Agency for International Development, and member government contributions to make trade information available in a coherent, easy-to-use data bank. Designed to promote economic growth through trade facilitation, SICE consists of 13 databases, which include current trade statistics, import tariffs, trade regulations, and lists of potential buyers and sellers. The Inter-American Council for Education, Science, and Culture (CIECC)1 was established by the resolution of Maracay in 1968 to advance regional integration and contribute to the development of the member countries. Starting in 1990, CIECC began to implement the new priority multi-national projects in basic education, education for work, materials technology, biotechnology and food, environment and natural resources, micro-electronics and informatics, preservation and use of cultural heritage, and cultural policies. Apart from the multinational aspect, these projects must have a strong training component and seek to build the infrastructure of the country. CIECC manages an efficient $8 million annual graduate fellowship program. More than 80,000 Latin American and Caribbean students have benefited from CIECC and related fellowship programs. The program effectively has created a network of specialists working in government or cooperation agencies, as well as in private business. _________________ 1When the Protocol of Managua charter amendments are ratified, the Inter-American Economic and Social Council (CIES) and the Inter-American Council for Education, Science, and Culture (CIECC) will be replaced by a single body, the new Inter-American Council for Integral Development. This new Council will have overall responsibility for coordinating all development assistance, a move expected to improve cooperation and to attract greater financial support from donor countries and international development institutions. Specialized Organizations and Other Entities Much important inter-American business is conducted under separate entities, some of which are independent, some fully or partially funded by the OAS, and others consisting simply of periodic hemispheric meetings which receive support from the OAS Secretariat. Subjects covered include agriculture, labor, copyrights, private international law, highways, ports and harbors, railways, telecommunications, health and sanitation, statistics, travel, child welfare, Indian affairs, and tourism. The conferences are attended by high-level officials and technical experts to further inter-American cooperation in these fields. The Inter-American Children's Institute (IACI), with headquarters in Montevideo, Uruguay, is concerned with the problems of mothers, adolescents, and families, including growing numbers of "street children." It serves as a center for social action, programs in the fields of health, education, social legislation, legislation on adoptions, social service, and statistics. IACI has contributed extensively to international jurisprudence in the field of family law; the most recent example of this work is model legislation on international adoption. The Inter-American Commission on Women (CIM), established in 1928, was the first international organization focusing on women's issues. It works to extend the civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights of women in the hemisphere. Since its founding, women have gained full political rights in every member country. Now concerned with women's integration into development and decision-making processes, recent CIM research and seminars have focused on women and politics (1988), women and employment (1989), and violence against women (1990). In August 1992, the CIM sponsored the Inter-American Conference on Democracy in the Americas: Women and the Decision-Making Process. That meeting focused on developing training programs for women on strategic planning, net-working, negotiating, and building consensus. The Inter-American Defense Board (IADB) was created during World War II to plan and coordinate collective hemispheric defense. It advises the OAS on defense matters and has coordinated peace-keeping operations. In 1993, it arranged for training by the U.S. Department of Defense of a team of 15 de-mining instructors from Latin America nations, who, in turn, instruct members of the Nicaraguan military on techniques for removing thousands of land mines left in the countryside as a result of civil conflict during the 1980s. The Inter-American Defense College (IADC), supervised by the IADB, enhances military professionalism and promotes regional military cooperation. The college usually trains about 60 students, most of whom are field-grade officers who attain leadership positions in their respective services. In 1991, the college opened its doors for the first time to students from all OAS member states, whether or not they are signatories of the Rio Treaty. Other entities in the inter-American system are financed outside the OAS budget. Except for the Pan American Development Foundation, which relies heavily on private-sector contributions, and the IDB, which has significant financial support from non-hemispheric members, the U.S. quota assessment is, as for the OAS itself, roughly 60%. The Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), the first of the regional development banks, was established in 1959 as a result of deliberations in the OAS to provide lending attuned to the development needs of Latin America and the Caribbean. In addition to nations of the hemisphere, 15 European nations plus Japan and Israel are now members, but only Latin American and Caribbean members are eligible borrowers. The IDB's ordinary capital window provides development funds at market-related terms, while its Fund for Special Operations offers financing for economic or social development when lending on conventional terms is not appropriate to conditions of the country and/or project. The Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA), headquartered in San Jose, Costa Rica, assists member states in promoting rural development to advance the well-being and progress of entire populations. By strengthening national agricultural institutional systems, IICA supports member state efforts to increase agricultural productivity, employment opportunities in rural sectors, and rural participation in development activities. IICA has an excellent record in preventing the spread of threatening animal and plant diseases in the hemisphere and in helping members develop food production. The Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO) is also the Western Hemisphere arm of the UN World Health Organization (WHO). It works closely with member countries to coordinate hemispheric efforts to combat disease and promote physical and mental health. It has contributed significantly to eradicating communicable diseases and promoting improved sanitation and health conditions throughout the hemisphere. The Pan American Institute for Geography and History (PAIGH) encourages the coordination and standardization of information and publicizing geographic, historical, cartographic, and geophysical studies in the Americas. Member countries receive information and technical assistance to locate and develop their natural resources. It preserves and documents historical data through research and publication. It also facilitates cooperative relationships between U.S. agencies and other countries in such vital areas as aviation safety. The Inter-American Indian Institute (IAII), headquartered in Mexico City, initiates, coordinates, and directs research to promote better understanding of the health, education, economic, and social problems of Indian populations. It provides technical assistance for programs of Indian community development, trains personnel in agriculture and marketing, and provides scientific information on present-day Indians of the Americas. It thus serves as an excellent vehicle for cooperation among countries of the hemisphere with substantial Indian populations. The Pan American Development Foundation (PADF) is a unique quasi-public international organization which, although it was created by the OAS, receives more than half its financial support largely from U.S. corporations and other private sources. PADF has channeled more than $100 million into development projects that mobilize private sector support in recipient countries. It also coordinates disaster relief. The PADF qualifies for charitable donations under the U.S. Internal Revenue Code Section 201(c)(3). It receives a small grant from the OAS as well as funds from the U.S. Agency for International Development. Department of State Publication 8874 Published by the U.S. Department of State Bureau of Public Affairs -- Office of Public Communication -- Washington, D.C. August 1993 -- Managing Editor: Peter A. Knecht Contents of this publication are not copyrighted unless indicated. If not copyrighted, the material may be reproduced without consent; citation of the publication as the source is appreciated. Permission to reproduce any copyrighted material (including photos and graphics) must be obtained from the original source. For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.